ED304630 88 An Overview of Self-Concept Theory for Counselors. Highlights: An ERIC/CAPS Digest.

Author: Purkey, William W.

ERIC Clearinghouse on Counseling and Personnel Services, Ann Arbor, Mich.

THIS DIGEST WAS CREATED BY ERIC, THE EDUCATIONAL RESOURCES INFORMATION CENTER.

FOR MORE INFORMATION ABOUT ERIC, CONTACT ACCESS ERIC 1-800-LET-ERIC

After more than a decade of relative neglect, self-concept is enjoying

renewed popularity and attention by both researchers and

practitioners. There is growing awareness that of all the perceptions

we experience in the course of living, none has more profound

significance than the perceptions we hold regarding our own personal

existence--our concept of who we are and how we fit into the world.

Self-concept may be defined as the totality of a complex, organized,

and dynamic system of learned beliefs, attitudes and opinions that

each person holds to be true about his or her personal existence.

Self-concept is different from self-esteem (feelings of personal worth

and level of satisfaction regarding one's self) or self-report (what a

person is willing and able to disclose). Fromm (1956) was as

beautifully clear as anyone when he described self-concept as "life

being aware of itself."

BRIEF HISTORY OF SELF-CONCEPT THEORY

A milestone in human reflection about the non-physical inner self came

in 1644, when Rene Descartes wrote Principles of Philosophy. Descartes

proposed that doubt was a principal tool of disciplined inquiry, yet

he could not doubt that he doubted. He reasoned that if he doubted,

he was thinking, and therefore he must exist. Thus existence depended

upon perception.

A second milestone in the development of self-concept theory was the

writing of Sigmund Freud (1900) who gave us new understanding of the

importance of internal mental processes. While Freud and many of his

followers hesitated to make self-concept a primary psychological unit

in their theories, Freud's daughter Anna (1946) gave central

importance to ego development and self-interpretation.

Self-concept theory has always had a strong influence on the emerging

profession of counseling. Prescott Lecky (1945) contributed the

notion that self-consistency is a primary motivating force in human

behavior. Raimy (1948) introduced measures of self-concept in

counseling interviews and argued that psychotherapy is basically a

process of altering the ways that individuals see themselves.

By far the most influential and eloquent voice in self-concept theory

was that of Carl Rogers (1947) who introduced an entire system of

helping built around the importance of the self. In Rogers' view, the

self is the central ingredient in human personality and personal

adjustment. Rogers described the self as a social product, developing

out of interpersonal relationships and striving for consistency. He

maintained that there is a basic human need for positive regard both

from others and from oneself. He also believed that in every person

there is a tendency towards self-actualization and development so long

as this is permitted and encouraged by an inviting environment (Purkey

& Schmidt, 1987).

While most self-concept theorists continued to write and conduct

research during the 1970's and 1980's, general interest in

self-concept declined. In a recent article explaining the likely

causes for the decline of "humanistic" education, Patterson (1987)

presents reasons for the decline of interest in self-concept as well.

He offers four likely causes:

1. A cornucopia of contrived games, gimmicks, and techniques that

were introduced and controlled by unprepared professionals.

2. A national mood of "back to basics" in education prevailed where

concern for the emotional needs of students was viewed as inimical to

academic excellence.

3. Poor judgment by counselors and teachers in selecting suitable

materials for values clarification programs resulted in public

opposition to any attempt to introduce values in school.

4. Strong opposition by those who objected to any consideration of

personal development of students because they believed it to be

secular humanism and, therefore, an effort to undermine religion.

Fortunately, there is a new awareness on the part of both the public

and professionals that self-concept cannot be ignored if we are to

successfully address such nagging problems as drug and alcohol abuse,

drop-out rates, dysfunctional families, and other concerns. In

addition to this growing awareness, new ways are being developed to

strengthen self-concepts. For example, research by cognitive

theorists (McAdam, 1986; Ryan, Short & Weed, 1986) are demonstrating

that negative self-talk leads to irrational thinking regarding oneself

and the world.

SOME BASIC ASSUMPTIONS REGARDING SELF-CONCEPT

Many of the successes and failures that people experience in many

areas of life are closely related to the ways that they have learned

to view themselves and their relationships with others. It is also

becoming clear that self-concept has at least three major qualities of

interest to counselors: (1) it is learned, (2) it is organized, and

(3) it is dynamic. Each of these qualities, with corollaries, follow.

Self-concept is learned. As far as we know, no one is born with a

self-concept. It gradually emerges in the early months of life and is

shaped and reshaped through repeated perceived experiences,

particularly with significant others. The fact that self-concept is

learned has some important implications:

-- Because self-concept does not appear to be instinctive, but is a

social product developed through experience, it possesses relatively

boundless potential for development and actualization.

-- Because of previous experiences and present perceptions,

individuals may perceive themselves in ways different from the ways

others see them.

-- Individuals perceive different aspects of themselves at different

times with varying degrees of clarity. Therefore, inner focusing is a

valuable tool for counseling.

-- Any experience which is inconsistent with one's self-concept may

be perceived as a threat, and the more of these experiences there are,

the more rigidly self-concept is organized to maintain and protect

itself. When a person is unable to get rid of perceived

inconsistencies, emotional problems arise.

-- Faulty thinking patterns, such as dichotomous reasoning (dividing

everything in terms of opposites or extremes) or overgeneralizing

(making sweeping conclusions based on little information) create

negative interpretations of oneself.

Self-Concept is organized. Most researchers agree that self-concept

has a generally stable quality that is characterized by orderliness

and harmony. Each person maintains countless perceptions regarding

one's personal existence, and each perception is orchestrated with all

the others. It is this generally stable and organized quality of

self-concept that gives consistency to the personality. This organized

quality of self-concept has corollaries.

-- Self-concept requires consistency, stability, and tends to resist

change. If self-concept changed readily, the individual would lack a

consistent and dependable personality.

-- The more central a particular belief is to one's self-concept, the

more resistant one is to changing that belief.

-- At the heart of self-concept is the self-as-doer, the "I," which

is distinct from the self-as-object, the various "me's." This allows

the person to reflect on past events, analyze present perceptions, and

shape future experiences.

-- Basic perceptions of oneself are quite stable, so change takes

time. Rome was not built in a day, and neither is self-concept.

-- Perceived success and failure impact on self-concept. Failure in

a highly regarded area lowers evaluations in all other areas as well.

Success in a prized area raises evaluations in other seemingly

unrelated areas.

Self-Concept is dynamic. To understand the active nature of

self-concept, it helps to imagine it as a gyrocompass: a continuously

active system that dependably points to the "true north" of a person's

perceived existence. This guidance system not only shapes the ways a

person views oneself, others, and the world, but it also serves to

direct action and enables each person to take a consistent "stance" in

life. Rather than viewing self-concept as the cause of behavior, it

is better understood as the gyrocompass of human personality,

providing consistency in personality and direction for behavior. The

dynamic quality of self-concept also carries corollaries.

-- The world and the things in it are not just perceived; they are

perceived in relation to one's self-concept.

-- Self-concept development is a continuous process. In the healthy

personality there is constant assimilation of new ideas and expulsion

of old ideas throughout life.

-- Individuals strive to behave in ways that are in keeping with

their self-concepts, no matter how helpful or hurtful to oneself or

others.

-- Self-concept usually takes precedence over the physical body.

Individuals will often sacrifice physical comfort and safety for

emotional satisfaction.

-- Self-concept continuously guards itself against loss of

self-esteem, for it is this loss that produces feelings of anxiety.

-- If self-concept must constantly defend itself from assault, growth

opportunities are limited.

SUMMARY

This brief overview of self-concept theory has focused on describing

the ways people organize and interpret their inner world of personal

existence. The beginnings of self-concept theory and its recent

history have been discussed. Three major qualities of

self-concept--that it is: (1) learned, (2) organized, and (3)

dynamic--have been presented. Individuals have within themselves

relatively boundless potential for developing a positive and realistic

self-concept. This potential can be realized by people, places,

policies, programs, and processes that are intentionally designed to

invite the realization of this potential.

RESOURCE DOCUMENTS

Freud, S. (1900). The interpretation of dreams. In the complete

psychological works of Sigmund Freud. London: The Hogarth Press,

1962.

Fromm, E. (1956). The art of loving. New York: Harper & Row.

Hamachek, D. E. (1978). Encounters with the self (2nd ed.). New York:

Holt Rinehart and Winston.

Jourard, S. (1971). Self-disclosure: An experimental analysis of the

transparent self. New York: Wiley-Interscience.

Lecky, P. (1945). Self-consistency: A theory of personality. New

York: Island Press.

McAdam, E. K. (1986). Cognitive behavior therapy and its application

with adolescents. Journal of Adolescence, 9, 1-15.

Patterson, C. H. (1961). The self in recent Rogerian theory. Journal

of Individual Psychology, 17, 5-11.

Purkey, W. W., & Schmidt, J. (1987). The inviting relationship: An

expanded perspective for professional counseling. Englewood Cliffs,

NJ: Prentice-Hall, Inc.

Raimy, V. C. (1948). Self-reference in counseling interviews. Journal

of Consulting Psychology, 12, 153-163.

Rogers, C. R. (1947). Some observations on the organization of

personality. American Psychologist, 2, 358-368.

Ryan, E. B., Short, E. J., & Weed, K. A. (1986). The role of cognitive

strategy training in improving the academic performance of learning

disabled children. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 19, 521-529.

William W. Purkey Professor of Counselor Education University of North

Carolina at Greensboro

This publication was prepared with funding from the Office of

Educational Research and Improvement, U.S. Department of Education,

under contract no. RI88062011. The opinions expressed in this report

do not necessarily reflect the positions or policies of OERI or the

Department of Education.

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