PSYC 7010: LEARNING & ASSESSMENT
Study assistance for objectives and essay questions

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In general, when you write an answer to an essay question you should follow the format you learned in Freshman English:

• General
  1. Use complete sentences
  2. Use proper punctuation
  3. Use proper spelling
• Organization
  1. Introduction
     1. What is the issue to be addressed?
     2. Why is this issue important?
     3. What will be included in your answer; how will your answer be organized?
  2. Body -- Present information in clear, concise, and logical manner
  3. Summary/Conclusions
     1. Summarize your main points
     2. Relate information in body to originial proposition (why is this issue important?)

Some examples of good essay writing are provided by the Educational Testing Service, developer of the GRE-Writing Test.

1. Define educational psychology and discuss how it can help teachers and administrators to carry out their respective roles. Include in your discussion how the use of the scientific method and research have impacted the development of a knowledge base for educational psychology. [3-16, 51-64] [PPT Presentation: Introduction] [PPT Presentation: Research]

Introduction

1. Why study educational psychology? What is its relevance to the study of teaching and learning?
2. What is the relationship between education and schooling?
3. There are now as many "teachers" in business, industry, and government as there are in the public K-12 system. Why is this happening and what are its implications for K-12 teachers?
4. What is the relationship between teaching and learning? Can one happen without the other? How? Why?

Research (This material would be covered in a previously taken research module; this is a review).

1. What is the scientific method and why do we use it to study the teaching/learning process?
2. What would be some good questions that could be addressed using a descriptive study? What would you be trying to find out? Have you every done a descriptive research study as an educator? Was it a successful study?
3. When would you want to do a correlational study? What are some advantages and disadvantages of this type of study? Give some examples of the types of questions one might ask that a correlational study might answer? Give an example from a research study you know about that exemplifies a correlational study.
4. When would you want to do an experimental study? What are some advantages and disadvantages of this type of study? Give some examples of the types of questions one might ask that an experimental study might answer? Give an example from a research study that exemplifies the experimental study? Why is this type of study not done more often in education?
5. Relate the following hierarchies: descriptive, correlational and experimental studies; fact, concept, principle, theory, law; knowledge, comprehension, application, analysis, synthesis, evaluation.

2. Compare and contrast the following terms:
        a. learning, maturation, and development;
        b. aptitude and achievement;
        c. instruction, assessment, and evaluation;
        d. reliablity and validity;
        e. traditional assessment and performance assessment;
        f. formative assessment and summative assessment;
        g. norm-referenced evaluation and criterion-referenced evaluation.
Why is assessment and evaluation of aptitude and achievement such an important issue in today's schools. Make some recommendations you would make for how assessment and evaluation should be done at the grade level and subject you teach. [GR 1-29; Dietel et al., 1991]

1. Should we be more concerned about learning, maturation or development when we address school learning? Why is this an important issue?
2. What is the difference between aptitude and achievement? With which of these should the educational system be more concerned? Why?
3. Reliability and validity are important issues in all aspects of school. How are these dealt with in instruction, assessment, and evaluation?
4. How much emphasis should we place on formative and summative assessments when assigning grades? Why?
5. Should teachers use norm-referenced standards when evaluating classroom learning?

3. Draw and discuss a model of the teaching-learning process. Name and define each of the categories of variables in your model and identify some of the research that has been used to build the model. (Be certain to identify the source of your model.)

1. Why is a model of the teaching/learning process necessary? What value does it serve?
2. Why have so many alternative models been developed over the last 4 decades? Why is John Carroll's model especially important?
3. I hypothesize 4 rubrics that can serve as categories for all variables to be discussed in educational psychology. Can you think of a category that I have left out or a variable that does not fit in one of the categories? Describe the basis of your position.
4. Why is the output category so important in a model of the teaching/learning process? What is the standard used to measure school learning in the US? Why is this done? Who made the decision to do this? What are some implications of this decision?
5. What is Academic Learning Time (ALT) and why is it such an important variable in the model? What can teachers do to increase ALT?
6. What is an input variable in this model (i.e., give a definition). Why are teacher beliefs, especially teacher efficacy, so important (i.e., what impact do they have on classroom behavior)? Why is time an important construct when deciding whether intelligence (academic ability) or the ability to understand instruction (prerequisite knowledge) is the more important student characteristic?
7. The school, family, religious organizations, and peer groups are especially important context factors in this model. Why?

4. Define and discuss academic learning time and how it might be improved? (be specific about whether the proposed changes relate to the school or to the classroom; if to the classroom, whether they relate to instruction or management). Which theoretical approach to learning is the concept of ALT most closely linked? [PPT Presentation]

1. Define and differentiatate the following terms related to school time: school year, attendance year, school day, allocated time, engagement rate, engaged time, time on task, time on target, academic learning time?
2. Which time variable is the best predictor of student achievement? Why? How can educators improve academic learning time? Be specific about what state and local policy boards, principals and teachers can do.

5. Provide an overview of the systems model of human development presented in class, describing how the behavioral, cognitive, humanistic and learning/development theories address different factors in this model. [Bronfenbrenner, 1997][PPT Presentation - Basics] [PPT Presentation - Context]

1. What is the focus of this model? How is that different from the Model of the Teaching/Learning Process?
2. What is the value of considering the human being from the perspective of body, mind and spirit?
3. What are some implications of considering mind in terms of cognition, affect, and conation? What are some possible implications for the Model of the Teaching/Learning Process?
4. Why are family, school, religious organizations, and peer groups considered as the first level of context? What are some implications for educators?

6. Discuss at least 5 important trends that are presently influencing or are likely to influence education during the next 20 years. Include in your discussion the impact the transition to the information age is having on the required knowledge, attitudes, and skills required for successful living. Make recommendations on how professional educators should respond to changing conditions. [PPT Presentation] [Connections video]

1. Why is the movement to the information age from the agricultural/industrial age so important? Some people say the next shift is to the imagination age. Why would they say that? Do you agree?
2. Name the most important trend (other than the movement to the information age) that you believe will impact life in the 21st century. State why you believe this to be so. How will this impact important knowledge, attitudes, and skills of students? What is one thing educators can do to help student acquire these?
3. How have you begun to prepare yourself for teaching in the information age? What books or articles have you read? What seminars or conferences have you taken? What courses have you taken? What experiences have you sought out? Is this working? Are you acquiring the necessary knowledge, attitudes, and skills? What else do you need to do?

7.  Name and discuss the essential foundations and competencies needed to work effectively in the information age as developed by the (U.S. Department of Labor) Secretary's Commission on Achieving Necessary Skills (SCANS). Discuss Dr. Huitt's critique of the SCANS report in terms of important attitudes, knowledge, and skills for being successful in the information age? How do these compare to the concept "Becoming a Brilliant Star?" What evidence would you use to persuade students, parents, educators and community members that these are indeed important? [See # 4 above; Huitt, 1997] [PPT Presentation] [Brilliant Star] 

1. Why is the SCANS report an important document? Do you agree with the major catagories of Foundations and Competenices? How have you, your school or your discipline begun to address these?
2. Do you agree or disagree with my critique of the SCANS report? Are there important knowledge, attitudes or skills that are not in the SCANS report or my critique? Which one of the additional items in my critique do you believe to be most important for success in the 21st century?
3. What is/are the appropriate roles for the school, family and community to take in helping students develop in ways that are not measured on a standardized test of basic skills? Are these being addressed in your community and school system? If so, how? If not, what should be done?

8. Define learning and describe the major focus and assumptions of the behavioral, cognitive, humanistic, and social cognitive theories of learning. Describe some implications of classroom and school practice that can be derived from these theories.

1. What is meant by "focus?" What is meant by "assumption?" Why are these issues important when discussing learning theory? Compare and contrast these for two of the four schools of learning: behavioral, cognitive, humanistic, social learning.

9. Compare and contrast three major behavioral theories of learning, giving examples of how each of these can be used in the teaching-learning process. [17-64] [PPT Presentation]

1. What is the basic assumption of the behavioral approach to learning? Why did this approach catch on so quickly in American culture, but not in Europe? What are some major advantages of this approach? Disadvantages?

10. Define operant learning and give original examples of four different methods for altering behavior using this theory. Discuss how this theory can be applied to the teaching-learning process, including how the Premack principle can be used to determine reinforcers. Additionally, name and define each of the schedules of reinforcement, and give an example of each kind as it might be used in the classroom. [67-103] [PPT Presentation]

1. What is the basic assumption of operant conditioning? Is this correct for human as well as animal learning? Support your answer.
2. Describe the differences between reinforcement and punishment. Between positive and negative reinforcement. Between positive reinforcement and response cost.
3. What happens when you move from a fixed schedule to a variable schedule? Which is the more appropriate at the initial stages of learning?
4. What happens when you move from an interval schedule to a ratio schedule? Which is the most often used in schools today? What is the result?
5. Give some examples of how the behavioral approach can be used to enhance school learning.

11. Define and discuss the major viewpoints and theories related to the cognitive system in the systems model of human behavior. [143-173] [PPT Presentation -- Overview]

1. What is the basic assumption of the cognitive approach to learning? Why do behaviorists not accept this assumption? Is this an appropriate assumption for human learning?

12. Define and differentiate the stage, levels-of-processing, parallel distributed processing, and connectionist models of information processing. Draw and discuss the information-processing model of memory and give an example of how it works. Discuss the kinds of stimuli likely to arouse the orienting response and describe how short-term memory and long-term memory operate. Discuss some principles for getting information into both types of memory. How might these principles be implemented to improve instruction?[143-173] [PPT Presentation -- Information Processing] [PPT Presentation -- Stage Model] [PPT Presentation --Using the Theory] [PPT Presentation - Terms]

1. What is the basic assumption of the stage theory of memory? How does this compare with the basic assumption of the level-of-processing theory? What are the implications of each model?
2. What is the difference between sensory memory and short-term memory? Between short-term and long-term memory? Which of these are educators most interested in and why?
3. Give some examples of how the cognitive approach can be used to enhance school learning.

13.Describe each of the six levels of Bloom's taxonomy of the cognitive domain, providing an original example of actions students might take to demonstrate competency at each level. [PPT Presentation--Domains]

1. What is the cognitive domain? How is it similar to and different from the affective and psychomotor domains? Why is the cognitive domain important in the information age?
2. Do data support the hypothesis that Bloom's taxonomy of the cognitive domain is a true hierarchy? If not, how should it be modified? What are some implications for the types of objectives we develop for K-12 students? What are some implications for assessment and evaluation?
3. What evidence exists, pro and con, for the use of higher-level and lower-level questions in classes? Based on this evidence what would your recommendations be concerning the use of each type in the classroom?

14. Describe intellectual development according to Piaget, including a discussion of both the process and the stages of development. Note behavioral characteristics of each stage, describing how assimilation and accommodation are exemplified for each stage of development. Describe specific actions that teachers can take to incorporate Piaget's theory into the classroom. [201-235, 237-273] [PPT Presentation-Process] [PPT Presentation-Stages]

1. Who was Piaget and why is his theory of importance to educators? How did his early experiences influence his viewpoint on the development of intelligence? How is this reflected in his theory of how intelligence is developed?
2. Which of the stages in Piaget's theory of cognitive development are of most importance to educators in the K-12 grades? Give at least two specific actions teachers can take to help students develop their intelligence in these stages.
3. Discuss what is meant by the statement that "the schemata one brings to learning might be the most important determiner of what is learned." How might this statement influence teacher behavior?

15. Describe cognitive development according to Lev Vygotsky. Compare Piaget's theory to Vygotsky's sociohistorical theory of cognitive development.

1. Why is Vygotsky's theory described as a sociohistorical theory? What are its basic assumptions? What are some implications for parents and educators?
2. Piaget was born and worked in Switzerland; Vygotsky was born and worked in Russia. How might this upbringing have influenced their scientific work? Should this be a factor in how we judge the validity of these theories? Why or why not?
3. Describe any similarities and differences between the stage theory and the levels-of-processing theory of information processing and Piaget's and Vygotsky's theories. Provide some implications for educators when one tries to combine all four theories.

16. Define critical thinking and discuss why it is an important topic to be addressed by today's educators. How is critical thinking similiar to and different from creativity? [Hummel & Huitt, 1994][PPT Presentation]

1. What is critical thinking and how has the definition of critical thinking changed over the past two decades? Which definition of critical thinking do you prefer? Why?
2. How is critical thinking related to the topics of Information Processing and Bloom's Taxonomy of the Cognitive Domain discussed earlier? Is critical thinking more important, equally important, or less important than creative thinking in the information age? Why?

17. Define metacognition and describe five ways to help students increase their metacognitive skills. [175-198] [PPT Presentation]

1. What does the the "meta" mean? How does metacognition relate to the SCANS report and Huitt's critique? Why is this issue especially relevant in the information age?
2. How can teachers and students know if students are engaging in metacognitive activities?

18. What is the SQ3R/SQ4R/PQ4R method of study? What is the relationship of study habits and attitudes to achievement? What can you as a teacher do to improve these in students? [PPT Presentation]

1. Which version of the SQ3R/SQ4R/PQ4R study method do you prefer? Why? Be specific about what you as an educator can do to help students in each step of the study process in the grade level and subject (or one of the subjects) you teach.

19. Discuss J. B. Carroll's model of school learning. Relate Carroll's model to Bloom's model of mastery learning and to the concept of Academic Learning Time. [PPT Presentation]

1. What is the basic idea behind John Carroll's model of school learning and why is this model so important in the history of educational psychology? How did it impact Ben Bloom's work? How did it impact educational research in the 1960s and 1970s? How does his model relate to the Systems Model of the Teaching/Learning Process discussed in this class?

20. Describe why planning is an important classroom activity. Name and define the major steps often used by educators in the planning process. Provide an original example of how you might use this process. Write an instructional objective for six different topics according to the standards set forth by either Mager or Gronlund.  [PPT Presentation--Planning] [PPT Presentation--Objectives]

1. Relate the concept of planning to having a target and a starting point before describing what you are going to do. Give an example of a Mager-style behavioral objective (be certain to have a student behavior, a condition statement and a criteria statement). Give an example using the same content based on the method prescribed by Gronlund (include enough representative specific statements to convey meaning to the general statement.)

21. Name and discuss four different categories of models of instruction, relating each category to a theoretical approach to learning and to a component of mind or behavior. [Rosenshine, 1995] [PPT Presentation--Overview] [PPT Presentation--Direct Instruction]

1. How do the categories of instructional models relate to the learning theories discussed above? How important are the outcomes advocated by instructional developers in each of these categories in the information age? Give specific examples of programs for each category.

 22. Describe how the cognitive approach has impacted the direct instruction model. How can mastery learning combined with direct instruction utilize both a behavioral and cognitive approach?

1. Describe the basic principles of direct instruction approaches to instruction. How does the 4MAT system developed by Bernice McCarthy differ from other approaches to direct instruction?
2. What are the basic principles of mastery learning? How do the principles of mastery learning relate to John Carroll's model of school learning? What are some advantages and disadvantages of mastery learning? How can direct instruction and mastery learning be integrated into a single instructional model?

23. Name and describe at least three general categories of classroom management activities a teacher might use if implementing a behavioral approach to classroom management, giving original examples of each. State which of these principles would be especially important during the first week of school year, and why. How does this conceptualization relate to the three aspects of classroom management: obedience, responsibility, and solidarity? [Randolph & Evertson, 1994] [PPT Presentation--Overview] 

1. What are three different approaches to classroom management? [Hint: Relate each approach to an approach to learning.] Why might the behavioral approach demonstrate such effectiveness?
2. How do the major categories of management events from a behavioral perspective relate to the major categories of instructional events in Huitt's transactional model of direct instruction?

24. Using the research on the first-week management behavior of effective classroom teachers, state what you would do during your first week as a new teacher and why you would do that. Discuss the difference between focusing on increasing on-task behavior or decreasing off-task behavior (Give specific, original examples, not just generalities.). [Chap 11, pp. 376-377] [PPT Presentation]

1. How does the research on first-week activities relate to the 3 categories of classroom management presented above? Why is it especially important to get a good start in classroom management? [Hint: How many times do you do instructional planning during the school year? Planning for classroom management?]
2. How can you use Ms. Duo to help you remember and discuss reducing off-task behavior?

25. Name and discuss the major viewpoints and theories related to the affective/emotional system in the systems model of human behavior. [PPT Presentation]

1. What is the function of the affective system of the human mind. What are some major topics studied in educational psychology that relate to this system? Why is each of these important in the study of educational psychology?

26. Describe each of the five levels of Krathwol's affective domain, providing an original example of actions students might take to demonstrate competency at each level. [PPT Presentation]

1. What is the taxonomy of the affective domain? How is it similar to and different from the taxonomies of the cognitive and psychomotor domains? Why is the affective domain important in the information age?

27. Name and define five values you believe are especially important for students in the 21st century. Support your proposal with research, theory, and statements the requirements of being successful in an information age economy. How would recommend educators go about teaching those values? How is values education related to character education? [PPT Presentation]

1. What is a value? How does it relate to a belief? An attitude? A skill? Give examples of each.
2. What are some examples of values presented in the SCANS report? In Huitt's critique and subsequent summary of successful attributes for the information age?
3. What do you believe is the most important value students need to acquire in order to be successful in the 21^st century. How would you go about teaching that value in the K-12 system. Be specific about the approaches and methods you would use.

28. Name and describe Erikson's theory of psychosocial development. Note behaviors associated with each stage and the implications of the theory for classroom practice. Evaluate the theory--that is, what evidence exists for its validation or what evidence would lead you to reject it? [PPT Presentation]

1. Describe the overall purpose of Erikson's theory of socioemotional development, the approximate ages for each stage and what educators can do to help children develop appropriately in each stage? Why is this theory important?
2. How does Erikson's theory of socioemotional development relate to Bingham and Stryker's view of the development of girls? Does this latter theory have face validity (i.e., does this make sense from your experience)? How do these theories relate to Maslow's theory? To Piaget's theory?

29. Describe how optimism and enthusiasm might influence the teaching/learning process. [275-308] [PPT Presentation]

1. Differentiate optimism and pessimism? Differentiate enthusiasm from apathy? Why are these two concepts especially important in the information age? How do these influence the teaching/learning process?

30. Name and discuss the major principles and objectives of humanistic education. Describe what a teacher might do in order to implement these principles. Summarize the findings from the meta-analyses examining the outcomes of open education discussed in your text. Include findings regarding both achievement and affective outcomes. [PPT Presentation]

1. What is the evidence (if any) to support the principles and objectives of humanistic education (i.e., are these advocated by SCANS, Huitt's critique, etc.)? In general, have open education programs met the goals established for them?
2. How does facilitative teaching differ from the more general model of open education? Does that method have different results in terms of attitudes and achievement? Why do teachers using facilitative teaching techniques have students who achieve more on traditional methods of student achievement?

31. Name and discuss the major viewpoints and theories related to the regulatory system in the systems model of human behavior. [PPT Presentation]

1. What is the function of the regulatory system of the human mind? What are some major topics studied in educational psychology that relate to this system? Why is each of these important in the study of educational psychology?

32. Define the terms self-concept and self-esteem and discuss how these might influence learning. [318, 340] [PPT Presentation]

1. What is meant by the term "self?" What is self-concept? How does it relate to self-esteem? To self-determination? To self-control?
2. How does self-concept relate to academic achievement? Is there a correlational or causal relationship? What can teachers do to improve students' academic self-concepts?

33. Name and discuss the stages in Maslow's hierarchy of needs. How does this theory relate to achieving excellence in the nine areas of life presented in the "Becoming a Brilliant Star" exercise discussed in class? [PPT Presentation]

1. Describe the overall purpose of Maslow's hierarchy of needs. How does this theory relate to achieving excellence in the nine areas of life presented in the "Becoming a Brilliant Star" exercise discussed in class? What is the research support for this theory?
2. In Maslow's theory, what is the difference between a deficiency need and a growth need? Where does need for academic achievement fall in this hierarchy? What are some implications of this for educators?

34. Discuss social learning theory and the social cognition theory of learning. Define conation, describe how it works and how it might develop. How does goal-setting impact conation and learning? How does conation relate to self-regulation and self-control? What can educators do to help students develop conation? [277-312] [PPT Presentation-Social Learning and Social Cognition] [PPT Presentation-Conation]

1. What is the relationship between social learning theory and the social cognition theory of learning. Define conation, describe how it works and how it might develop. What are some other terms for conation? How does conation relate to self-regulation and self-control?
2. How does goal-setting impact conation and learning? How does conation relate to dreams, visions, goals and needs? What are some indicators of conation? What can educators do to help students develop conation?
3. Why do you think research has generally confirmed the benefits of cooperative learning? [Hint: Relate the approach to Maslow's and Piaget's theories and the data on improving students critical thinking.] How important are the skills learned in cooperative learning to students in the information age?

35. Discuss the research relating to the effects of teacher expectations and efficacy on student performance. What can teachers do to maximize the positive effects of teacher efficacy? [Ashton, 1984] [PPT Presentation]

1. Define teacher efficacy and differentiate it from teacher expectations. How does Proctor's model relate to the teaching/learning model discussed previously. What are some specific domains or topics that teachers should be concerned with if they want to improve their efficacy?

36. Define learning and compare and contrast the factors that behavioral, cognitive, humanistic, and social cognitive theorists believe influence the learning process. Mention ways in which the theories are alike and ways in which they are different and how each can be used by educators to improve student learning.. [PPT Presentation]

1. Define and differentiate the behavioral and information processing approaches to learning.
2. Define and differentiate the behavioral and Piagetian approaches to learning.
3. Define and differentiate the behavioral and social cognition approaches to learning.
4. Define and differentiate the information processing and humanistic approaches to learning.

37. Name and discuss at least 5 principles of learning that most learning theorists agree on, regardless of their theoretical orientation. Give specific examples of how these principles could be used in the classroom. [PPT Presentation]

1. Which of the 14 listed general principles of learning most important and why? Could you develop an entire program of learning based on that one principle? Why or why not?

38. Discuss how your view of humankind's spiritual nature might influence your interpretation of human growth and development literature as well as the teaching/learning process. [PPT Presentation]

1. Do you believe humankind's spirituality is an appropriate topic to be discussed in a course on school learning? Has this topic been discussed in other courses? Why or why not? Does this topic ever arise in your classrooms? If it does, how do you handle the discussion?

39. Describe the structure and functioning of the brain and other components of humankind's biological nature that might influence human growth and development as well as the teaching/learning process. [PPT Presentation]

1. Find a website that presents information about the human brain and provide some information from that website that you believe is relevant to educators. Why is this important information? [Note: be sure and provide us with the URL for the website you used.]

40.  Name and define the major aspects of the systems model of human behavior presented in class. Be certain to distinguish between internal and external influences on development. Explain why context is such an important aspect of human behavior at this point in history. How can such a model help educators in their professional roles? [see #3 above; summarize #6, #16, #21, #24, #25] [PPT Presentation]

1. How can the systems model of human behavior presented in class help educators in their professional roles? What are the advantages over a simple listing of competing learning theories? What are the disadvantages?

Discuss how and when these concepts would be important in classroom assessment, evaluation, and grading practices relative to the important variables discussed in this course. [Dietel et al., 1991; Popham, 1999][PPT Presentation]

1. How are reliability and validity related? When would you use formative and summative evaluations? Criterion- and norm-referenced evaluations? Why are norm-referenced evaluations mainly advocated by non-educators?
2. What is the purpose of grades? Who is the major beneficiary(ies) of the current approach towards grading? What can you do to take into account the normal errors made in the process of assigning grades? What is the major difficulty in using authentic assessment?
3. Which (if any) theoretical learning perspective would be most concerned with which of the issues of norm-referenced versus criterion-referenced evaluations? Of teacher-controlled classroom grading? Of the relationship of evaluations and grades to real needs of students outside of the classroom? Describe why you believe so for each question.

42. Compare and contrast the behavioral, cognitive, social cognitive, and humanistic learning theories and describe important assessment issues highlighted by each theory. Describe some assessment procedures that can address these issues. [PPT Presentation]

1. Compare and contrast the behavioral and social cognitive learning theories and describe important assessment issues highlighted by each theory. Describe some assessment procedures that can address these issues. (Name and describe at least one assessment issue for each of the points you discuss for each theory. Give specific examples of assessment procedures you would recommend.)
2. Compare and contrast the information processing and humanistic learning theories and describe important assessment issues highlighted by each theory. Describe some assessment procedures that can address these issues. (Name and describe at least one assessment issue for each of the points you discuss for each theory. Give specific examples of assessment procedures you would recommend.)

    a. Completion and Short-Answer Items;
    b. Essay Items;
    c. Multiple-Choice, Matching and True/False Items.

1. What are some major advantages and disadvantages of traditional assessment methods used in schools and classrooms. Why are informal, performance, and portfolios considered as viable alternatives. What are some advantages and disadvantages of each of these alternative methods? What does research say as to their effectiveness? How widely used and accepted are each of the alternative methods?
2. Describe the advantages and disadvantages of the following: a. Completion and Short-Answer Items; b. Essay Items; c. Multiple-Choice, Matching and True/False Items. Be specific in terms of breadth and depth of coverage, levels of Bloom's Taxonomy of the Cognitive Domain, reliability and validity of both individual assessments and grades, and the demands of the 21^st century.

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